Ebony+B

Ebony B Essay summarising classical conditioning Aversion, desensitisation, ethics Classical conditioning was identified in 1899 by Ivan Pavlov. Classical conditioning is a form of learning that occurs through repeated association and linking of two different stimuli over time until they become associated and learning is only said to occur when a particular stimulus constantly produces a response that it did not previously produce. Aversion- aversion therapy can be used to stop unwanted behaviours in people such as drug dependency or crime. It works to rid the undesirable behaviour by pairing it with an unpleasant stimuli such as feeling sick or being in pain so an association between the two is formed and the participant will try to avoid the feeling again by avoiding the behaviour it was paired with. Aversion therapy was developed in the 1930’s, back then for example one way it was used was to treat alcoholics using a painful electric shock. This was given to them whenever they were around alcohol, now days they use nausea drugs so that a link is formed between feeling sick and the unwanted behaviour, this has proved more successful however than electric shock. A downfall of learned aversion is it fails a lot of the time to generalise to other situations other than when it was learned so the participants go back to there old behaviour patterns when they know the nausea drug isn’t present. Desensitisation – This is used to treat fears and phobias and mental health issues which fear plays a prominent part. systematic desensitisation attempts to replace an anxious response through a classical conditioning process. The process works by implementing a series of steps so therefore the client is gradually conditioned to be desensitised to activities or situations that cause fear and anxiety. Deep muscle relaxation is also used in the anxiety causing situations. Ethics in conditioning behaviour- codes of behaviour are expected to be followed by researchers in psychology including in Behavioural conditioning. Some well known experiments using behavioural conditioning didn’t follow ethical guidelines such as “Little Albert” and were highlighted in “Clockwork Orange” as a form of learning Classical conditioning learning occurs passively and new behaviours are acquired. Therefore upholding ethics is very important to protect the people involved in research and clinically. This easy has highlighted three parts of classical conditioning including two different uses it has and the ethics involved in it being carried out responsibly and legally 1249213936

Learning Activity 17- essay- “The roles of visual perception principals” “Roles of the visual perception system- demonstrate your understanding of the ways in which visual information is organised so that meaningful interpretations can be made.” Visual perception principals are “rules” that we automatically apply to visual stimuli to assist organisation and interpretation of the stimuli in consistent and significant ways, these help us to make sense of visual information. Visual perception principals can be classified into three broad categories. These are **Gestalt principals**, **depth principals** and **perceptual constancies.** ** Gestalt principals of visual perception ** refer to the ways we can organise the elements of our visual field by grouping them into the perception of a whole, complete form, for example if part of what we are observing is obscured then we construct a whole or complete form by mentally filling in the parts that are not visible. Gestalt principals help us to construct a meaningful whole object from an assortment of parts that when considered alone lack meaning. A experiment conducted by Navon concluded that we mentally process the whole before we analyse the individual parts. The Gestalt Principles used in visual perception: Figure-ground, Closure, Similarity, and Proximity. **//Figure-ground-//** When we use figure ground we organize visual information by perceptually separating important aspects of the visual field into figure and ground (the surroundings) by making an object the centre of our focus it becomes it becomes the figure while all other information becomes the ground. The figure and the ground are separated by the observer using a perceived or actual line. This line of separation (contour) is always perceived as belonging to the figure,

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camouflage occurs when the figure and ground are not easily separated and blend together. Closure refers to the perceptual tendency to mentally close up gaps in visual stimulus to perceive objects as complete. Example when we see a picture we might perceive it as complete even though some of the lines may be incomplete or missing. Another example: the Telstra logo, we mentally impose a missing vertical stroke to the letter ‘T’. Closure usually applies with non-verbal information eg the wheelchair symbol, we close the lines to see the wheelchair. Similarity is the tendency to perceive parts of a visual stimulus that have similar features, such as: size, shape, texture and/or colour, as belonging together in a group or a whole. For example, Similarity is applied to uniforms for schools, sports, police, and the defence force. is the tendency to perceive parts of a visual stimulus that are positioned close together as belonging together in a group. E.g. grouping separate parts of visual stimulus into a whole based on physical positioning proximity. This is for example evident, when we look at the Proximity of different symbols such as the letters of the alphabet or musical notes. In addition to these principles that influence how we perceive objects, there is another group of principles that help us to determine where objects are perceptually located. These are depth perception principals.Depth cues Depth Perception Cues are sources of information from the environment (external cues) or from within our body (internal cues) that help us to perceive how far away objects are -a perception of depth and/or distance. Depth cues provide the information that enables us to translate the two dimensional imager our retina holds into three dimensional reality. Categorized as either a binocular depth cue (depth cues that use both eyes) or monocular depth cue,( depth cues that only use one eye.) There are two principles that involve Binocular depth cue, which are Retinal Disparityand convergence. - our eyes are 6 or 7 cm apart. Each retina receives slightly different image due to the different angles of view( not noticeable beyond 10 meters),refers to the very slight difference (disparity) to the location of the visual images on the retinas which enables us to make judgments about the distance from the viewer. When the two images are fused (combined) in the brain the images received from each eye are compared, any disparity between the two images provides the observer info about the depth of an object or its distance from the viewer viewer; Convergence, which involves the brain detecting and interpreting depth or distance (up to about 6metres) from changes in tension in the eye muscles when two eyes turn inwards (towards the nose) to focus on nearby objects.Monocular depth cues are cues that require the use of only one eye to provide information to the brain about depth and distance, but they also operate with both eyes. There are two monocular depth cues which are Accommodation and Pictorial cues. Accommodation is when the lens of the eye budges enabling us to fit in a large image viewed at close range that would normally be to large to fit into the retina. This can happen because the flexibility of the lens allows it to bulge to accommodate close objects and to flatten when viewing far objects. the automatic focusing mechanism of the lens into the eye to adjust the shape of the lens in response to differing distances of view from the object;Pictorial depth cues- there are five pictorial depth ques. Pictorial depth cues are often used by artists to portray depth land distance on a two dimensional surface. These include linear perspective, interposition, texture gradients, relative size and height in the visual field.Linear perspective- is the apparent convergence of parallel lines as they reside into the distance.Interposition- (or overlap) is when one3 object partially obscures another and the partially obscured object is perceived as further away than the object that obscures it.One of the most commonly used pictorial depth cue.Texture gradients- refer to the gradual diminishing of detail that occurs in surfaces as they reside into the distance, compared with objects in the visual field that are closer and seen in fine detail. Therefore our judgment about depth and distance is influenced by the extent to which we can detect fine detail.Relative size- refers to the tendency to perceive the object that produces the largest image on the retina as being closer and the object which produces the smallest image as being further away. However the objects perceived must be expected to be about the same size. We take into account what we know from past experience. Height in visual field- refers to the location of an object in our visual field whereby objects that are located closer to the horizon are perceived as being more distant than objects located further from the horizon.======

Perceptual constancies, refers to our tendency to perceive visual stimulus the same despite any changes that may occur to the image being cast on the retina. There are four different visual constancies. They are size constancy, shape constancy, brightness constancy and orientation constancy. Size constancy is being able to recognize that an objects actual size remains that same even though the image on the retina changing. When an object gets closer or further away, we have a tendency to perceive that the object hasn’t changed size but the image it casts on our retina changes making it appear bigger or smaller. Shape constancy is when we are able to perceive an object as maintaining its shape despite the image on the retina changing, and brightness constancy is our tendency to perceive an object as maintaining its level of brightness despite the amount of light being reflected onto the retina changing. Orientation constancy is being able to visually perceive the true position of an object in the environment even though the retinal image may be at a different orientation.  
 * //12mu, (i didn't know how to add it as a attachment, sorry)

Good work Ebony, you have not added in perceptual constancies. Then it will be finished ok done that//**